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Chapter 1 - The Science of Psychology
Chapter/Teaching Notes

Introduction

Psychology

systematic study of behavior and experience

scientific study of behavior and mental processes

study of animal and human behavior (and experience - conscious and unconscious) - the reason we study animals is because they are interesting and we can get a better understanding of humans through animals since animal behavior is simpler.

The Founding Fathers of Psychology
 

Wilhelm Wundt: (Germany)

Philosopher and Physiologist.

Believed one could determine mental processes through INTROSPECTION (a method of studying consciousness through the reports of subjective experience. e.g. the fundamentals of color)

• MD, Philosopher and Physiologist.
• Wrote Principles of Psychology, first psychology textbook

Various Approaches to the Study to Psychology

A) Structuralism vs. Functionalism

Stucturalism - Edward Titchener and William Wundt - Defined psychology as the science of human mind and consciousness. Used the method of objective introspection to identify the basic mental elements.

Functionalism - William James - Opposed Wundt's elemental approach, believed that "consciousness is a constant flow". Believed that psychology should focus on the usefulness (or functions) of mental (learning and perceptual) abilities -- functionalism.

B) Psychoanalysis - Freud

psychoanalytic - part of the mind we are not aware of controls our behavior

consciousness is the tip of the iceberg

unconsciousness is underwater

sources of conflict happen when we are children

Carl Rogers believed psychoanalysis is cruel and unforgiving; humans are fundamentally good; inherent capacity to achieve the ideal state; the environment shoves us off that path; when we put conditions on self-valuation, we fall off that path.

Emphasized the uniqueness of human, growth potential, and human's capacity for choice and health.

Abraham Maslow - Proposed a hierarchy of human needs, from the lowest level of physiological needs to the highest level of self-actualization need.

Believed each person's potential in self-actualization

Traced to Pavlov, Watson and Skinner; focus on experimental study on observable behavior; establish metaphor: black box.

Defined psychology as the science of behavior.

Believed in the dominant influence of learning and environment as opposed and heredity.

Emphasizes the roles of reinforcement and punishment in shaping and modifying behavior.

Jean Piaget - focus on what happens inside black box; how we process and store info, looks @ thoughts.

Psychology in the study of thinking, mental processes, and problem solving

Cognitive psychologists apply information-processing approach to the study of human cognition

Max Wetheimer - Focused on perception and how perception influences thinking and problem solving

"Gestalt" means whole, configuration, pattern, and Gestalt psychologists illustrate how we tend to perceive separate pieces of information as integrated wholes.

Opposes Wundt's approach in searching for basic mental elements, because "the whole is more than the sum of its parts".

Scientific Method - Psychological Research is based on this.

State the research problem.

Formation of hypothesis - generate a prediction - make an educated guess.

Design the research - select a method - conduct the research.

Gather the data - analyze the data to assess the predictions.

Explain what the assessment of the predictions says about the truth of the hypothesis.

Communicate your study to the scientific community.

• Psychologists use experiments to determine cause-and-effect relationships.
• The advantage of the experimental method is you accurately measure dependent variables. The drawback is the limits encountered since it is limited to a laboratory and it differs from reality. Sampling errors also presents a problem and it is also hard to generalize to the real world.
• Groups and assignments
• Experimental
• Control (Experimental)
• Random Assignment
• Variables
• operational definition
• dependent = characteristic you are interested in seeing change
• independent = variable we are manipulating, independent variable causes changes in the dependent variable
• confound = variables that influence the dependent variable that we are not interested in
• Blindness = people doing the rating must not know what condition the subjects are in
• Single blindness = subject doesn't know what condition they are in
• Double blindness = subject and surveyor don't know

• Simply observe the natural world.
• You watch a "subject" in its natural habitat in order to gather data.
• You must remain hidden or you must blend in as part of the habitat.
• The advantage is that it is a conveyance of reality, while the drawback is it is expensive and time consuming since you have to wait and you cannot tamper with your observation. In addition you have very poor/low control. Cannot determine cause and effect.

• An in-depth look at a unique behavior or situation for a certain period of time.
• Gives us a better understanding of a bigger picture
• Does not generalize well
• Good control
• The advantage is you can take all the time you need to accumulate the detail you desire. The drawback is that experimentalists and psychotherapists tend to generalize the behavior of the interviewee to others. Cannot determine cause and effect.

• Examines the relationship of two variables without actually controlling either one of them.
• Correlation coefficient (r) is a mathematical estimate of the relationship between two variables which can range from +1.0 to -1.0.
• The absolute value of r indicates the strength of the relationship. The closer to 1 either + or -, the stronger the relationship.
• A positive relationship means that the variables increase or decrease together.
• A negative correlation means the variables move in opposite directions.
• Problems with correlational strategy include:
(a) DIRECTIONALITY PROBLEMS
and
(b) 3rd VARIABLE PROBLEM
• Advantages: (1) We can look at questions that cannot be examined with the experimental method. EXAMPLE: Is there a connection between paternal rejection in the 1st year of life & adjustment to school? (2) Highly efficient in terms of time & cost. (3) Can determine relationships.

• Involves collecting information from a selected group of people who are representative of a larger group.
• A good way to get large amounts of data on a large sample of subjects quickly, efficiently and inexpensively.
• Fill out questionnaires; do interviews
• There are specific problems with surveys: Cannot determine cause and effect. Representative Sample. Self Report problems. Give answer that they think is "right" or socially acceptable. Over Report. Under Report. Sabotage. Lack of Interest.

American Psychological Association (APA)

• Sets guidelines, oversees procedures, and holds conventions.
Psychologists are bound by certain ethical standards.